The Outpouring of African American Art and Literature in New York City in the 1920s Was Called

African-American cultural movement in New York City in the 1920s

Harlem Renaissance
Part of the Roaring Twenties
Three African-American women in Harlem during the Harlem Renaissance in 1925
Appointment	1918 – mid 1930s
Location	Harlem, New York City, United States and influences from Paris, France
Also known as	New Negro Movement
Participants	Various artists and social critics
Outcome	Mainstream recognition of cultural developments and idea of New Negro

The Harlem Renaissance was an intellectual and cultural revival of African American music, dance, fine art, fashion, literature, theater, politics and scholarship centered in Harlem, Manhattan, New York City, spanning the 1920s and 1930s. At the time, it was known as the "New Negro Movement", named afterwards The New Negro, a 1925 anthology edited by Alain Locke. The movement also included the new African American cultural expressions across the urban areas in the Northeast and Midwest United States affected by a renewed militancy in the general struggle for ceremonious rights, combined with the Smashing Migration of African American workers fleeing the racist conditions of the Jim Crow Deep Due south,^[one] equally Harlem was the final destination of the largest number of those who migrated north.

Though it was centered in the Harlem neighborhood, many francophone black writers from African and Caribbean area colonies who lived in Paris were as well influenced by the movement,^[2] ^[three] ^[iv] ^[5] which spanned from well-nigh 1918 until the mid-1930s.^{[half dozen]} Many of its ideas lived on much longer. The zenith of this "flowering of Negro literature", as James Weldon Johnson preferred to call the Harlem Renaissance, took identify betwixt 1924—when Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life hosted a party for black writers where many white publishers were in attendance—and 1929, the year of the stock-market crash and the beginning of the Smashing Low. The Harlem Renaissance is considered to have been a rebirth of the African-American arts.^[vii] Many people^{[ who? ]} would contend that the Harlem Renaissance never ended and has continued to be an important cultural force in the The states through the decades: from the historic period of stride piano jazz and dejection to the ages of bebop, rock and roll, soul, disco and hip-hop.

Background

Until the stop of the Civil State of war, the majority of African Americans had been enslaved and lived in the Due south. During the Reconstruction Era, the emancipated African Americans, freedmen, began to strive for civic participation, political equality and economic and cultural self-conclusion. Presently after the terminate of the Civil War the Ku Klux Klan Deed of 1871 gave rise to speeches by African-American Congressmen addressing this Pecker.^[8] By 1875, xvi African Americans had been elected and served in Congress and gave numerous speeches with their newfound civil empowerment.^[9]

The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 was followed past the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, part of Reconstruction legislation by Republicans. During the mid-to-late 1870s, racist whites organized in the Democratic Party launched a murderous campaign of racist terrorism to regain political ability throughout the Due south. From 1890 to 1908, they proceeded to pass legislation that disenfranchised well-nigh African Americans and many poor whites, trapping them without representation. They established white supremacist regimes of Jim Crow segregation in the Southward and one-party block voting behind southern Democrats.

Democratic Political party politicians (many having been former slaveowners and political and military leaders of the Confederacy) conspired to deny African Americans their do of civil and political rights by terrorizing blackness communities with lynch mobs and other forms of vigilante violence^[ten] as well as by instituting a convict labor system that forced many thousands of African Americans back into unpaid labor in mines, on plantations, and on public works projects such equally roads and levees. Convict laborers were typically bailiwick to savage forms of corporal punishment, overwork, and illness from unsanitary conditions. Death rates were extraordinarily loftier.^[xi] While a small-scale number of African Americans were able to acquire land shortly later on the Civil War, almost were exploited equally sharecroppers.^[12] Whether sharecropping or on their own acreage, nigh of the blackness population was closely financially dependent on agriculture. This added another impetus for the Migration: The arrival of the boll weevil. The beetle eventually came to waste material 8% of the land'south cotton wool yield annually and thus disproportionately impacted this part of America's citizenry.^[13] As life in the South became increasingly difficult, African Americans began to drift n in great numbers.

Most of the future leading lights of what was to go known equally the "Harlem Renaissance" movement arose from a generation that had memories of the gains and losses of Reconstruction after the Ceremonious War. Sometimes their parents, grandparents – or they themselves – had been slaves. Their ancestors had sometimes benefited by paternal investment in cultural capital letter, including amend-than-average pedagogy.

Many in the Harlem Renaissance were role of the early 20th century Not bad Migration out of the Southward into the African-American neighborhoods of the Northeast and Midwest. African Americans sought a ameliorate standard of living and relief from the institutionalized racism in the Southward. Others were people of African descent from racially stratified communities in the Caribbean area who came to the United States hoping for a meliorate life. Uniting most of them was their convergence in Harlem.

Development

A silent short documentary on the Negro Artist. Richmond Barthé working on Kalombwan (1934)

During the early portion of the 20th century, Harlem was the destination for migrants from around the land, attracting both people from the S seeking work and an educated course who made the area a eye of culture, as well as a growing "Negro" centre class. These people were looking for a fresh start in life and this was a skilful place to become. The district had originally been developed in the 19th century equally an sectional suburb for the white center and upper center classes; its affluent beginnings led to the development of stately houses, grand avenues, and world-class amenities such every bit the Polo Grounds and the Harlem Opera House. During the enormous influx of European immigrants in the late 19th century, the in one case exclusive commune was abandoned by the white eye class, who moved farther northward.

Harlem became an African-American neighborhood in the early on 1900s. In 1910, a large block along 135th Street and Fifth Avenue was bought by various African-American realtors and a church grouping.^[fourteen] ^{[ citation needed ]} Many more African Americans arrived during the Showtime World War. Due to the war, the migration of laborers from Europe virtually ceased, while the war try resulted in a massive demand for unskilled industrial labor. The Groovy Migration brought hundreds of thousands of African Americans to cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, and New York.

Despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white racism, often by more recent indigenous immigrants, continued to impact African-American communities, even in the Northward.^[xv] After the finish of World War I, many African-American soldiers—who fought in segregated units such as the Harlem Hellfighters—came dwelling to a nation whose citizens often did not respect their accomplishments.^[xvi] Race riots and other civil uprisings occurred throughout the The states during the Carmine Summer of 1919, reflecting economic contest over jobs and housing in many cities, equally well as tensions over social territories.

Mainstream recognition of Harlem culture

The first stage of the Harlem Renaissance started in the late 1910s. In 1917, the premiere of Granny Maumee, The Rider of Dreams, Simon the Cyrenian: Plays for a Negro Theater took place. These plays, written by white playwright Ridgely Torrence, featured African-American actors conveying complex human being emotions and yearnings. They rejected the stereotypes of the greasepaint and minstrel show traditions. James Weldon Johnson in 1917 called the premieres of these plays "the about important single event in the unabridged history of the Negro in the American Theater".^[17]

Another landmark came in 1919, when the communist poet Claude McKay published his militant sonnet "If Nosotros Must Die", which introduced a dramatically political dimension to the themes of African cultural inheritance and modern urban experience featured in his 1917 poems "Invocation" and "Harlem Dancer". Published under the pseudonym Eli Edwards, these were his first appearance in print in the The states later on immigrating from Jamaica.^[eighteen] Although "If We Must Die" never alluded to race, African-American readers heard its annotation of defiance in the face of racism and the nationwide race riots and lynchings so taking place. Past the end of the Showtime World State of war, the fiction of James Weldon Johnson and the poetry of Claude McKay were describing the reality of contemporary African-American life in America.

The Harlem Renaissance grew out of the changes that had taken place in the African-American community since the abolition of slavery, equally the expansion of communities in the North. These accelerated equally a event of Earth War I and the dandy social and cultural changes in early on 20th-century United States. Industrialization was attracting people to cities from rural areas and gave ascension to a new mass civilization. Contributing factors leading to the Harlem Renaissance were the Great Migration of African Americans to northern cities, which concentrated aggressive people in places where they could encourage each other, and the First World State of war, which had created new industrial work opportunities for tens of thousands of people. Factors leading to the decline of this era include the Great Depression.

Literature

In 1917 Hubert Harrison, "The Father of Harlem Radicalism", founded the Liberty League and The Vocalisation, the first organization and the beginning newspaper, respectively, of the "New Negro Move". Harrison's organization and newspaper were political, but as well emphasized the arts (his paper had "Poetry for the People" and book review sections). In 1927, in the Pittsburgh Courier, Harrison challenged the notion of the renaissance. He argued that the "Negro Literary Renaissance" notion overlooked "the stream of literary and creative products which had flowed uninterruptedly from Negro writers from 1850 to the present," and said the so-called "renaissance" was largely a white invention.^{[ citation needed ]} Alternatively, a writer like the Chicago-based author, Fenton Johnson. who began publishing in the early 1900s, is called a "forerunner" of the renaissance,^[19] ^[20] "ane of the first negro revolutionary poets".^[21]

Withal, with the Harlem Renaissance came a sense of acceptance for African-American writers; as Langston Hughes put it, with Harlem came the courage "to express our private dark-skinned selves without fear or shame."^[22] Alain Locke's anthology The New Negro was considered the cornerstone of this cultural revolution.^[23] The anthology featured several African-American writers and poets, from the well-known, such as Zora Neale Hurston and communists Langston Hughes and Claude McKay, to the lesser-known, like the poet Anne Spencer.^[24]

Many poets of the Harlem Renaissance were inspired to necktie in threads of African-American culture into their poems; as a upshot, jazz poetry was heavily adult during this time. "The Weary Blues" was a notable jazz poem written past Langston Hughes.^[25] Through their works of literature, black authors were able to give a vocalisation to the African-American identity, also as strive for a customs of support and acceptance.

Religion

Christianity played a major role in the Harlem Renaissance. Many of the writers and social critics discussed the office of Christianity in African-American lives. For example, a famous poem by Langston Hughes, "Madam and the Minister", reflects the temperature and mood towards religion in the Harlem Renaissance.^[26] The encompass story for The Crisis magazine's publication in May 1936 explains how of import Christianity was regarding the proposed union of the three largest Methodist churches of 1936. This commodity shows the controversial question of unification for these churches.^[27] The article "The Catholic Church building and the Negro Priest", besides published in The Crisis, January 1920, demonstrates the obstacles African-American priests faced in the Catholic Church. The article confronts what information technology saw as policies based on race that excluded African Americans from college positions in the church.^[28]

Soapbox

Organized religion and Evolution Ad

Various forms of religious worship existed during this time of African-American intellectual reawakening. Although in that location were racist attitudes within the current Abrahamic religious arenas many African Americans continued to push towards the do of a more inclusive doctrine. For instance, George Joseph MacWilliam presents various experiences, during his pursuit towards priesthood, of rejection on the basis of his color and race still he shares his frustration in attempts to incite activity on the function of The Crisis magazine community.^[28]

There were other forms of spiritualism good among African Americans during the Harlem Renaissance. Some of these religions and philosophies were inherited from African ancestry. For example, the religion of Islam was present in Africa equally early on as the 8th century through the Trans-Saharan trade. Islam came to Harlem likely through the migration of members of the Moorish Scientific discipline Temple of America, which was established in 1913 in New Jersey.^{[ citation needed ]} Various forms of Judaism were practiced, including Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform Judaism, simply it was Blackness Hebrew Israelites that founded their religious conventionalities system during the early 20th century in the Harlem Renaissance.^{[ citation needed ]} Traditional forms of faith caused from various parts of Africa were inherited and practiced during this era. Some common examples were Voodoo and Santeria.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Criticism

Religious critique during this era was found in music, literature, art, theater and poesy. The Harlem Renaissance encouraged analytic dialogue that included the open up critique and the aligning of current religious ideas.

1 of the major contributors to the discussion of African-American renaissance culture was Aaron Douglas who, with his artwork, too reflected the revisions African Americans were making to the Christian dogma. Douglas uses biblical imagery as inspiration to various pieces of art piece of work simply with the rebellious twist of an African influence.^[29]

Countee Cullen's poem "Heritage" expresses the inner struggle of an African American between his past African heritage and the new Christian civilization.^[30] A more severe criticism of the Christian religion can be establish in Langston Hughes' poem "Merry Christmas", where he exposes the irony of religion as a symbol for proficient and yet a force for oppression and injustice.^[31]

Music

A new manner of playing the pianoforte called the Harlem Stride style was created during the Harlem Renaissance, and helped blur the lines between the poor African Americans and socially elite African Americans. The traditional jazz band was composed primarily of contumely instruments and was considered a symbol of the south, just the piano was considered an instrument of the wealthy. With this instrumental modification to the existing genre, the wealthy African Americans at present had more than access to jazz music. Its popularity presently spread throughout the country and was consequently at an all-time high.

Innovation and liveliness were of import characteristics of performers in the ancestry of jazz. Jazz performers and composers at the time such as Eubie Blake, Noble Sissle, Jelly Roll Morton, Luckey Roberts, James P. Johnson, Willie "The Panthera leo" Smith, Andy Razaf, Fats Waller, Ethel Waters, Adelaide Hall,^[32] Florence Mills and bandleaders Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong and Fletcher Henderson were extremely talented, skillful, competitive and inspirational. They are still considered as having laid bully parts of the foundations for hereafter musicians of their genre.^[33] ^[34] ^[35]

Duke Ellington gained popularity during the Harlem Renaissance. According to Charles Garrett, "The resulting portrait of Ellington reveals him to exist non only the gifted composer, bandleader, and musician we have come up to know, but besides an earthly person with bones desires, weaknesses, and eccentricities."^[7] Ellington did not let his popularity get to him. He remained calm and focused on his music.

During this period, the musical style of blacks was becoming more than and more than bonny to whites. White novelists, dramatists and composers started to exploit the musical tendencies and themes of African Americans in their works. Composers (including William Grant Nonetheless, William 50. Dawson and Florence Price) used poems written by African-American poets in their songs, and would implement the rhythms, harmonies and melodies of African-American music—such as blues, spirituals, and jazz—into their concert pieces. African Americans began to merge with Whites into the classical globe of musical composition. The beginning African-American male to gain wide recognition equally a concert artist in both his region and internationally was Roland Hayes. He trained with Arthur Calhoun in Chattanooga, and at Fisk University in Nashville. Later, he studied with Arthur Hubbard in Boston and with George Henschel and Amanda Ira Aldridge in London, England. He began singing in public equally a student, and toured with the Fisk Jubilee Singers in 1911.^[36]

Musical theatre

Poster for Run, Little Chillun

According to James Vernon Hatch and Leo Hamalian, all-Black review Run, Lilliputian Chillun is considered ane of the most successful musical dramas of the Harlem Renaissance.^[37]

Fashion

During the Harlem Renaissance, the black wearable scene took a dramatic plow from the prim and proper. Many immature women preferred- from curt skirts and silk stockings to drop-waisted dresses and cloche hats.^[38] Woman wore loose-fitted garments and accessorized with long strand pearl bead necklaces, plumage boas, and cigarette holders. The style of the Harlem Renaissance was used to convey elegance and flamboyancy and needed to be created with the vibrant dance style of the 1920s in mind.^[39] Popular by the 1930s was a trendy, egret-trimmed beret.

Men wore loose suits that led to the after manner known every bit the "Zoot", which consisted of wide-legged, high-waisted, peg-pinnacle trousers, and a long coat with padded shoulders and wide lapels. Men also wore broad-brimmed hats, colored socks,^[40] white gloves, and velvet-collared Chesterfield coats. During this flow, African Americans expressed respect for their heritage through a fad for leopard-peel coats, indicating the power of the African fauna.

The extraordinarily successful black dancer Josephine Baker, though performing in Paris during the elevation of the Renaissance, was a major mode trendsetter for black and white women akin. Her gowns from the couturier Jean Patou were much copied, specially her stage costumes, which Faddy magazine chosen "startling". Josephine Baker is also credited for highlighting the "fine art deco" style era after she performed the "Danse Sauvage". During this Paris performance she adorned a brim made of string and artificial bananas. Ethel Moses was some other popular black performer, Moses starred in silent films in the 1920s and 30s and was recognizable by her signature bob hairstyle.

Characteristics and themes

Trumpeter Light-headed Gillespie is allegorical of the mixture of high class society, popular art, and virtuosity of jazz.

Characterizing the Harlem Renaissance was an overt racial pride that came to be represented in the idea of the New Negro, who through intellect and production of literature, art, and music could claiming the pervading racism and stereotypes to promote progressive or socialist politics, and racial and social integration. The creation of fine art and literature would serve to "uplift" the race.

There would be no uniting form singularly characterizing the art that emerged from the Harlem Renaissance. Rather, it encompassed a broad multifariousness of cultural elements and styles, including a Pan-African perspective, "high-culture" and "depression-civilization" or "low-life", from the traditional grade of music to the blues and jazz, traditional and new experimental forms in literature such as modernism and the new course of jazz poetry. This duality meant that numerous African-American artists came into conflict with conservatives in the blackness intelligentsia, who took event with sure depictions of black life.

Some common themes represented during the Harlem Renaissance were the influence of the feel of slavery and emerging African-American folk traditions on black identity, the effects of institutional racism, the dilemmas inherent in performing and writing for elite white audiences, and the question of how to convey the experience of modern black life in the urban North.

The Harlem Renaissance was one of primarily African-American interest. It rested on a support organisation of black patrons, black-endemic businesses and publications. However, it besides depended on the patronage of white Americans, such as Carl Van Vechten and Charlotte Osgood Mason, who provided diverse forms of assistance, opening doors which otherwise might have remained closed to the publication of work outside the black American community. This back up often took the class of patronage or publication. Carl Van Vechten was i of the nigh noteworthy white Americans involved with the Harlem Renaissance. He allowed for assistance to the blackness American community because he wanted racial sameness.

There were other whites interested in so-called "primitive" cultures, as many whites viewed blackness American culture at that time, and wanted to see such "primitivism" in the work coming out of the Harlem Renaissance. As with most fads, some people may take been exploited in the rush for publicity.

Interest in African-American lives too generated experimental but lasting collaborative work, such as the all-black productions of George Gershwin's opera Porgy and Bess, and Virgil Thomson and Gertrude Stein'southward Iv Saints in 3 Acts. In both productions the choral conductor Eva Jessye was part of the artistic team. Her choir was featured in Four Saints.^[41] The music globe as well found white band leaders defying racist attitudes to include the best and the brightest African-American stars of music and vocal in their productions.

The African Americans used art to show their humanity and demand for equality. The Harlem Renaissance led to more opportunities for blacks to be published by mainstream houses. Many authors began to publish novels, magazines and newspapers during this time. The new fiction attracted a great amount of attention from the nation at big. Among authors who became nationally known were Jean Toomer, Jessie Fauset, Claude McKay, Zora Neale Hurston, James Weldon Johnson, Alain Locke, Omar Al Amiri, Eric D. Walrond and Langston Hughes.

Richard Bruce Nugent (1906–1987) who wrote "Smoke, Lilies, and Jade" is an important contribution, especially in relation to experimental course and LGBT themes in the catamenia.^[42]

The Harlem Renaissance helped lay the foundation for the post-World War II protest movement of the Ceremonious Rights movement. Moreover, many blackness artists who rose to creative maturity afterward were inspired by this literary motility.

The Renaissance was more than a literary or artistic movement, as information technology possessed a certain sociological development—particularly through a new racial consciousness—through ethnic pride, as seen in the Dorsum to Africa motion led by Jamaican Marcus Garvey. At the same fourth dimension, a unlike expression of ethnic pride, promoted past W. E. B. Du Bois, introduced the notion of the "talented 10th". Du Bois' wrote of the Talented Tenth:

The Negro race, like all races, is going to be saved by its exceptional men. The problem of education, then, amidst Negroes must beginning of all deal with the Talented 10th; it is the problem of developing the best of this race that they may guide the mass away from the contamination and death of the worst.^[43]

These "talented tenth" were considered the finest examples of the worth of black Americans as a response to the rampant racism of the menstruation. No item leadership was assigned to the talented tenth, but they were to exist emulated. In both literature and popular discussion, circuitous ideas such as Du Bois's concept of "twoness" (dualism) were introduced (see The Souls of Black Folk; 1903).^[44] Du Bois explored a divided awareness of one's identity that was a unique critique of the social ramifications of racial consciousness. This exploration was later revived during the Blackness Pride movement of the early on 1970s.

Influence

A new Blackness identity

The Harlem Renaissance was successful in that it brought the Black experience clearly within the corpus of American cultural history. Not just through an explosion of culture, but on a sociological level, the legacy of the Harlem Renaissance redefined how America, and the world, viewed African Americans. The migration of southern Blacks to the north changed the image of the African American from rural, undereducated peasants to one of urban, cosmopolitan composure. This new identity led to a greater social consciousness, and African Americans became players on the globe stage, expanding intellectual and social contacts internationally.

The progress—both symbolic and existent—during this menstruation became a point of reference from which the African-American customs gained a spirit of self-determination that provided a growing sense of both Black urbanity and Black militancy, as well every bit a foundation for the community to build upon for the Civil Rights struggles in the 1950s and 1960s.

The urban setting of rapidly developing Harlem provided a venue for African Americans of all backgrounds to capeesh the diversity of Black life and culture. Through this expression, the Harlem Renaissance encouraged the new appreciation of folk roots and culture. For instance, folk materials and spirituals provided a rich source for the creative and intellectual imagination, which freed Blacks from the establishment of past status. Through sharing in these cultural experiences, a consciousness sprung along in the class of a united racial identity.

However, there was some force per unit area within certain groups of the Harlem Renaissance to prefer sentiments of conservative white America in social club to be taken seriously by the mainstream. The result being that queer culture, while far-more than accepted in Harlem than most places in the country at the time, was most fully lived out in the smoky dark lights of bars, nightclubs, and cabarets in the urban center.^[45] It was within these venues that the blues music scene boomed, and since information technology had non nonetheless gained recognition within popular culture, queer artists used information technology every bit a way to limited themselves honestly.^[45]

Even though there were factions within the Renaissance that were accepting of queer culture/lifestyles, i could still be arrested for engaging in homosexual acts. Many people, including writer Alice Dunbar Nelson and "The Mother of Blues" Gertrude "Ma" Rainey,^[46] had husbands but were romantically linked to other women as well.^[47]

Ma Rainey was known to wearing apparel in traditionally male clothing and her blues lyrics often reflected her sexual proclivities for women, which was extremely radical at the fourth dimension. Ma Rainey was also the get-go person to introduce blues music into vaudeville.^[48] Rainey'due south protégé, Bessie Smith was another artist who used the blues as a way to express herself with such lines as "When you encounter two women walking manus in hand, just look em' over and try to sympathize: They'll get to those parties – have the lights down low – merely those parties where women tin can go."^[45]

Another prominent blues singer was Gladys Bentley, who was known to cross-dress. Bentley was the club possessor of Clam Business firm on 133rd Street in Harlem, which was a hub for queer patrons. The Hamilton Lodge in Harlem hosted an annual drag ball that attracted thousands to watch every bit a couple hundred young men came to dance the night away in drag. Though in that location were safe havens within Harlem, there were prominent voices such as that of Abyssinian Baptist Church's minister Adam Clayton who actively campaigned confronting homosexuality.^[47]

The Harlem Renaissance gave nascence to the thought of The New Negro. The New Negro movement was an endeavour to define what it meant to exist African-American by African Americans rather than let the degrading stereotypes and caricatures found in black confront minstrelsy practices to do so. There was likewise The Neo-New Negro movement, which not merely challenged racial definitions and stereotypes, but too sought to challenge gender roles, normative sexuality, and sexism in America in general. In this respect, the Harlem Renaissance was far ahead of the rest of America in terms of embracing feminism and queer culture.^[49]

These ideals received some push back as liberty of sexuality, especially pertaining to women (which during the time in Harlem was known every bit women-loving women),^[46] was seen every bit confirming the stereotype that black women were loose and lacked sexual discernment. The black bourgeoisie saw this as hampering the cause of black people in America and giving fuel to the fire of racist sentiments around the country. Nonetheless for all of the efforts by both sectors of white and conservative black America, queer culture and artists divers major portions of non simply the Harlem Renaissance, simply also define so much of our civilization today. Writer of "The Black Man's Burden", Henry Louis Gates Jr. wrote that the Harlem Renaissance "was surely as gay as it was black".^[49]

Criticism of the movement

Many critics point out that the Harlem Renaissance could non escape its history and culture in its try to create a new one, or sufficiently separate from the foundational elements of White, European culture. Often Harlem intellectuals, while proclaiming a new racial consciousness, resorted to mimicry of their white counterparts by adopting their clothing, sophisticated manners and etiquette. This "mimicry" may besides be called assimilation, as that is typically what minority members of whatsoever social construct must do in order to fit social norms created by that construct's bulk.^[fifty] This could be seen as a reason that the creative and cultural products of the Harlem Renaissance did non overcome the presence of White-American values, and did not turn down these values.^{[ citation needed ]} In this regard, the creation of the "New Negro" equally the Harlem intellectuals sought, was considered a success.^{[ by whom? ]}

The Harlem Renaissance appealed to a mixed audience. The literature appealed to the African-American middle class and to whites. Magazines such as The Crunch, a monthly journal of the NAACP, and Opportunity, an official publication of the National Urban League, employed Harlem Renaissance writers on their editorial staffs; published poetry and short stories by black writers; and promoted African-American literature through manufactures, reviews, and almanac literary prizes. As of import equally these literary outlets were, however, the Renaissance relied heavily on white publishing houses and white-owned magazines.^[51]

A major accomplishment of the Renaissance was to open the door to mainstream white periodicals and publishing houses, although the relationship between the Renaissance writers and white publishers and audiences created some controversy. Due west. E. B. Du Bois did not oppose the relationship betwixt black writers and white publishers, just he was critical of works such as Claude McKay'due south bestselling novel Dwelling house to Harlem (1928) for highly-seasoned to the "prurient need[s]" of white readers and publishers for portrayals of black "licentiousness".^[51]

Langston Hughes spoke for almost of the writers and artists when he wrote in his essay "The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain" (1926) that blackness artists intended to express themselves freely, no matter what the black public or white public thought.^[52] Hughes in his writings as well returned to the theme of racial passing, just during the Harlem Renaissance, he began to explore the topic of homosexuality and homophobia. He began to use disruptive language in his writings. He explored this topic because information technology was a theme that during this time period was not discussed.^[53]

African-American musicians and writers were amongst mixed audiences also, having experienced positive and negative outcomes throughout the New Negro Movement. For musicians, Harlem, New York'south cabarets and nightclubs shined a calorie-free on blackness performers and allowed for black residents to relish music and dancing. However, some of the most popular clubs (that showcased black musicians) were exclusively for white audiences; one of the about famous white-only nightclubs in Harlem was the Cotton fiber Club, where pop blackness musicians like Duke Ellington oftentimes performed.^[54] Ultimately, the black musicians who appeared at these white-just clubs became far more successful and became a office of the mainstream music scene.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Similarly, blackness writers were given the opportunity to shine one time the New Negro Motility gained traction equally curt stories, novels, and poems by black authors began taking form and getting into various print publications in the 1910s and 1920s.^[55] Although a seemingly practiced manner to establish their identities and culture, many authors note how hard it was for any of their work to actually go anywhere. Writer Charles Chesnutt in 1877, for example, notes that there was no indication of his race aslope his publication in Atlantic Monthly (at the publisher's request).^[56]

A prominent cistron in the New Negro's struggle was that their work had been made out to be "different" or "exotic" to white audiences, making a necessity for blackness writers to appeal to them and compete with each other to get their work out.^[55] Famous black writer and poet Langston Hughes explained that black-authored works were placed in a like style to those of oriental or strange origin, only beingness used occasionally in comparing to their white-fabricated counterparts: once a spot for a blackness work was "taken", black authors had to await elsewhere to publish.^[56]

Certain aspects of the Harlem Renaissance were accepted without contend, and without scrutiny. One of these was the hereafter of the "New Negro". Artists and intellectuals of the Harlem Renaissance echoed American progressivism in its faith in democratic reform, in its conventionalities in art and literature equally agents of change, and in its most uncritical belief in itself and its time to come. This progressivist worldview rendered Black intellectuals—just like their White counterparts—unprepared for the rude shock of the Great Depression, and the Harlem Renaissance concluded abruptly because of naive assumptions virtually the axis of civilization, unrelated to economic and social realities.^[57]

Works associated with the Harlem Renaissance

Blackbirds of 1928
Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance (book)
The New Negro: The Life of Alain Locke
Shuffle Along, musical
Untitled (The Nascency), painting
Voodoo (opera)
When Washington Was in Vogue
The Negro in Art
Taboo (1922 play)
There'll Be Some Changes Made

Encounter as well

Blackness Arts Movement, 1960s and 1970s
Black Renaissance in D.C.
Chicago Blackness Renaissance
List of female person entertainers of the Harlem Renaissance
List of notable figures from the Harlem Renaissance
New Negro
Niggerati
William E. Harmon Foundation award
Cotton Club, nightclub

Full general:

Roaring Twenties
African-American art
African-American culture
African-American literature
Listing of African-American visual artists

Notes and references

Notes

^ "NAACP: A Century in the Fight for Freedom" Archived 1 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Library of Congress.
^ "Harlem in the Jazz Historic period", New York Times, viii February 1987.
^ Cotter, Kingdom of the netherlands, "ART; A 1920s Flowering That Didn't Disappear", New York Times, 24 May 1998.
^ Danica Kirka, Jcu.edu Archived x June 2011 at the Wayback Machine
^ Kirka, Danica (i January 1995). "Los Angeles Times Interview : Dorothy W : A Voice of Harlem Renaissance Talks of Past--Simply Values the At present". Los Angeles Times.
^ Hutchinson, George, "Harlem Renaissance", Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ ^a ^b "Projection MUSE – Modernism, Mass Civilisation, and the Harlem Renaissance: The Case of Countee Cullen." Project MUSE – Modernism, Mass Culture, and the Harlem Renaissance: The Case of Countee Cullen. N.p., n.d. Web. four April 2015.
^ "Speeches of African-American Representatives Addressing the Ku Klux Klan Bill of 1871" (PDF). NYU Police.
^ Cooper Davis, Peggy. "Neglected Voices". NYU Law.
^ Woods, Clyde (1998). Development Arrested . New York and London: Verso. ISBN9781859848111.
^ Blackmon, Douglas A. (2009). Slavery Past Another Proper name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War Ii. Anchor.
^ Foner, Eric (1988). Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. Harper Collins.
^ Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem; Obstfeld, Raymond (2007). On The Shoulders of Giants : My Journey Through the Harlem Renaissance. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. i–288. ASIN B000NY130O. ISBN978-1-4165-3488-iv. OCLC 76168045.
^ Boundless (five Dec 2016). "The Harlem Renaissance". Boundless.
^ Muhammad, Khalil Gibran (2010). The Condemnation of Black: Race, Crime, and the Making of Mod Urban America. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Printing. pp. ane–xiv. ISBN978-0-674-03597-3.
^ "Harlem Hellfighters: Black Soldiers in Earth State of war I". America Comes Alive. v February 2015. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
^ McKay, Nellie Y., and Henry Louis Gates (eds), The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, New York: Norton, 1997, p. 931.
^ McKay, Claude. "Invocation" and "Harlem Dancer," in The 7 Arts 2.6 (October 1917): 741–742. Original folio scan bachelor in public domain through The Modernist Journals Project.
^ Poets, Academy of American Poets. "Most Fenton Johnson". poets.org . Retrieved 14 Baronial 2021.
^ Foundation, Poetry (xiii August 2021). "Fenton Johnson". Poetry Foundation . Retrieved 14 Baronial 2021.
^ Lewis, David Levering (1995). The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader. Penguin Books. p. 752. ISBN978-0-14-017036-eight.
^ Langston, Hughes (1926). "The Negro Artist and the Racial Mount". The Nation.
^ Locke, Alain (1925). The New Negro. Touchstone. pp. nine.
^ Locke, Alain (1925). The New Negro. Touchstone.
^ Hughes, Langston (1926). The Weary Blues. New York: Random House.
^ Hughes, Langston (1994). The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes . Vintage Classics. pp. 307. ISBN978-0679764083.
^ Williams, Robert M.; Carrington, Charles (May 1936). "Methodist Union and The Negro". The Crunch. 43 (5): 134–135.
^ ^a ^b MacWilliam, George Joseph (January 1920). "The Catholic Church and the Negro Priest". The Crisis. nineteen (three): 122–123. Retrieved 21 Dec 2013.
^ Rampersad, Arnold (Introduction) (1997). Alain Locke (ed.). The New Negro: Voices of the Harlem Renaissance (1st Touchstone ed.). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. ISBN978-0684838311.
^ Cullen, Countee. "Heritage". Poetry Foundation. Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
^ Hughes, Langston (13 January 2010). "Merry Christmas". H-Cyberspace: Humanities & Social Sciences Online. New Masses. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
^ America, Harlem Renaissance in (5 December 2016). "The Harlem Renaissance". Harlem Renaissance in America Art History – via coreybarksdale.com.
^ Boland, Jesse. "Harlem Renaissance Music." 1920s Fashion and Music. Spider web. 23 November 2009.
^ "Harlem Renaissance Music in the 1920s", 1920s Fashion & Music.
^ Leonard Feather, "The Volume of Jazz" (1957/59), p. 59 ff., Western Book Dist, 1988, ISBN 0818012021, 9780818012020
^ Southern, Eileen, Music of Negro Americans: a history. New York: Norton, 1997. Impress, pp. 404, 405 and 409.
^ Hatch, James Vernon; Hamalian, Leo (1996). Lost plays of the Harlem Renaissance, 1920-1940. Net Archive. Detroit : Wayne Country Academy Printing. ISBN978-0-8143-2580-iii.
^ W, Aberjhani and Sandra L. (2003). Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance, pp. 105–106; Vogue, 15 February 1926, p. 76.
^ Etherington-Smith, Meredith (1983), Patou, p. 83; Vogue, 1 June 1927, p. 51.
^ White, Shane and Graham (1998). Stylin': African American Expressive Culture from Its Beginnings to the Zoot Conform, pp. 248–251.
^ "Eva Jessye", University of Michigan, accessed 4 December 2008.
^ Nugent, Bruce (2002). Wirth, Thomas H.; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (eds.). Gay rebel of the Harlem renaissance : selections from the piece of work of Richard Bruce Nugent . Durham [N.C.]: Duke University Press. ISBN978-0822328865. OCLC 48691374.
^ W.E.B. Du Bois, "The Talented Tenth" (text), Sep 1903, TeachingAmericanHistory.org, Ashland University, accessed 3 Sep 2008
^ It was possible for blacks to have intellectual discussions on whether black people had a hereafter in America, and the Harlem Renaissance reflected such sociopolitical concerns.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hix, Lisa (nine July 2013). "Singing the Lesbian Blues in 1920s Harlem". Collectors Weekly.
^ ^a ^b Tenoria, Samantha (2006). "Women-Loving Women: Queering Black Urban Space during the Harlem Renaissance" (PDF). The University of California, Irvine (UCI) Undergraduate Research Periodical.
^ ^a ^b Villarosa, Linda (23 July 2011). "The Gay Harlem Renaissance". The Root. Archived from the original on 22 March 2016.
^ Garber, Eric. "A Spectacle in Colour: The Lesbian and Gay Subculture of Jazz Age Harlem". American Studies at the Academy of Virginia. University of Virginia.
^ ^a ^b Rabaka, Reiland (2011). Hip Hop's Inheritance From the Harlem Renaissance to the Hip Hop Feminist Movement. Lexington Books. ISBN9780739164822.
^ Yayla, Ayşegül. "Harlem Renaissance and its Discontents". Academia. Academia. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
^ ^a ^b Aptheker, H. ed. (1997), The Correspondence of WEB Dubois: Selections, 1877–1934, Vol. 1, pp. 374–375.
^ Rampersad, Arnold (26 November 2001). The Life of Langston Hughes: Book I: 1902-1941, I, Too, Sing America. Oxford Academy Press. ISBN9780199760862 – via Google Books.
^ "Project MUSE – Multiple Passings and the Double Death of Langston Hughes." Project MUSE – Multiple Passings and the Double Expiry of Langston Hughes. North.p., n.d. Web. four April 2015.
^ Davis, John S. (2012). Historical dictionary of jazz. Scarecrow Press. ISBN9780810878983. OCLC 812621902.
^ ^a ^b Werner, Craig; Golphin, Vincent F. A.; Reisman, Rosemary M. Canfield (2017), "African American Poetry", Salem Press Encyclopedia of Literature, Salem Press, retrieved 21 May 2019
^ ^a ^b Holmes, Eugene C. (1968). "Alain Locke and the New Negro Motility". Negro American Literature Forum. 2 (3): threescore–68. doi:10.2307/3041375. ISSN 0028-2480. JSTOR 3041375.
^ Pawłowska, Aneta (2014). "The Ambivalence of African-American Culture. The New Negro Art in the interwar period". Art Inquiry. sixteen: 190 – via Google Scholar.

References

Amos, Shawn, compiler. Rhapsodies in Black: Words and Music of the Harlem Renaissance. Los Angeles: Rhino Records, 2000. iv Compact Discs.
Andrews, William 50.; Frances Southward. Foster; Trudier Harris, eds. The Concise Oxford Companion To African American Literature. New York: Oxford Press, 2001. ISBN ane-4028-9296-ix
Bean, Annemarie. A Sourcebook on African-American Performance: Plays, People, Movements. London: Routledge, 1999; pp. seven + 360.
Greaves, William documentary From These Roots.
Hicklin, Fannie Ella Frazier. 'The American Negro Playwright, 1920–1964.' PhD Dissertation, Section of Voice communication, Academy of Wisconsin, 1965. Ann Arbor: Academy Microfilms 65-6217.
Huggins, Nathan. Harlem Renaissance. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. ISBN 0-19-501665-three
Hughes, Langston. The Big Sea. New York: Knopf, 1940.
Hutchinson, George. The Harlem Renaissance in Black and White. New York: Belknap Printing, 1997. ISBN 0-674-37263-8
Lewis, David Levering, ed. The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader. New York: Viking Penguin, 1995. ISBN 0-fourteen-017036-7
Lewis, David Levering. When Harlem Was in Faddy. New York: Penguin, 1997. ISBN 0-14-026334-9
Ostrom, Hans. A Langston Hughes Encyclopedia. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002.
Ostrom, Hans and J. David Macey, eds. The Greenwood Encylclopedia of African American Literature. 5 volumes. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2005.
Patton, Venetria One thousand. and Maureen Honey, eds. Double-Take: A Revisionist Harlem Renaissance Anthology. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2006.
Perry, Jeffrey B. A Hubert Harrison Reader. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Academy Printing, 2001.
Perry, Jeffrey B. Hubert Harrison: The Vocalization of Harlem Radicalism, 1883–1918. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.
Powell, Richard, and David A. Bailey, eds. Rhapsodies in Black: Fine art of the Harlem Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
Rampersad, Arnold. The Life of Langston Hughes. ii volumes. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986 and 1988.
Robertson, Stephen, et al., "Hell-raising Houses: Residences, Privacy, and the Surveillance of Sexuality in 1920s Harlem," Periodical of the History of Sexuality, 21 (September 2012), 443–66.
Soto, Michael, ed. Teaching The Harlem Renaissance. New York: Peter Lang, 2008.
Tracy, Steven C. Langston Hughes and the Blues. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988.
Watson, Steven. The Harlem Renaissance: Hub of African-American Culture, 1920–1930. New York: Pantheon Books, 1995. ISBN 0-679-75889-5
Williams, Iain Cameron. "Underneath a Harlem Moon ... The Harlem to Paris Years of Adelaide Hall". Continuum Int. Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0826458939
Wintz, Cary D. Black Civilization and the Harlem Renaissance. Houston: Rice University Press, 1988.
Wintz, Cary D. Harlem Speaks: A Living History of the Harlem Renaissance. Naperville, Illinois: Sourcebooks, Inc., 2007

External links

"A Guide to Harlem Renaissance Materials", from the Library of Congress
Bryan Carter (ed.). "Virtual Harlem". Academy of Illinois at Chicago, Electronic Visualization Laboratory.
"The Approaching 100th Anniversary of the Harlem Renaissance", by 60 minutes historian Aberjhani
Underneath A Harlem Moon by Iain Cameron Williams ISBN 0-8264-5893-9
I'd Similar to Testify You Harlem – by Rollin Lynde Hartt, The Independent, April, 1921
Collection: "Artists of the Harlem Renaissance" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art

kruegersily1960.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance